01
Joinery & construction
- Mortise and tenon joint primary furniture joint
- The fundamental joinery method of furniture construction — a projecting tenon cut on one piece slots into a corresponding mortise (cavity) cut in another. Used in chair frames, table bases, and case furniture. The quality and precision of the mortise-and-tenon is a primary indicator of craftsmanship. Hand-cut mortises show slight irregularities; machine-cut mortises (post-1850) are more uniform.
- Dovetail joint drawer construction indicator
- An interlocking joint cut in a fan shape (like a dove's tail) that resists pulling apart. Used primarily in drawer construction — the dovetails connect the drawer front to the drawer sides. Hand-cut dovetails (pre-1850) are slightly irregular in spacing and angle; machine-cut dovetails are perfectly regular. The number, size, and spacing of dovetails vary by period and national tradition: English drawers typically have more dovetails than French equivalents.
- Wooden peg / Treenail pre-screw fastener
- A wooden pin driven through a mortise-and-tenon joint to lock it permanently. Used before metal screws became common. The presence of wooden pegs in a joint is a strong indicator of pre-18th-century construction. Over time, wooden pegs shrink and may stand slightly proud of the surface — a useful authenticity indicator, as reproduction pegs are typically cut flush.
- Butterfly key bow-tie joint
- A small butterfly- or bow-tie-shaped wooden insert set across a split in a board to prevent it from widening further. Used in tabletops, slab fronts, and solid wood pieces. The presence of butterfly keys indicates solid wood construction (as opposed to veneered) and careful repair or reinforcement work.
- Rule joint drop-leaf hinge joint
- The shaped joint used on drop-leaf tables where the leaf's curved edge closes against a matching convex profile on the tabletop. When the leaf drops, the joint closes neatly; when raised, a flush surface results. The quality of the rule joint — its fit and the matching of the curve — is a good craftsmanship indicator. Characteristic of English Pembroke and drop-leaf tables from the 18th century onward.
- Veneer thin decorative wood layer
- A thin slice of decorative wood applied to a base (carcass) of a less expensive secondary wood. Veneering allows the use of rare or figured wood economically and in forms (curved surfaces, large panels) impossible with solid wood. Hand-cut veneers (pre-1840) are typically 1–3mm thick; machine-cut modern veneers are paper-thin. The thickness of veneer at the edge is a useful dating indicator.
02
Wood species
- Mahogany primary 18th-century cabinet wood
- The dominant quality cabinet wood of the 18th and 19th centuries. Cuban (Spanish) mahogany — imported from the 1730s — is dense, deep-coloured, and highly figured; it is associated with Chippendale and Hepplewhite furniture. Honduras mahogany is lighter and straighter-grained. African mahogany (20th century) is a different genus. Genuine Cuban mahogany is increasingly rare and commands a premium in restoration.
- Walnut William & Mary / Queen Anne wood
- The primary quality cabinet wood of the late 17th and early 18th century, before mahogany became dominant. English walnut was used solid and as veneer; American black walnut (darker, straighter grain) was imported from the 18th century. Burr (burl) walnut — highly figured wood from abnormal growths — was used for veneer panels and cross-banding. The warm brown colour and distinctive grain of walnut are characteristic of the William & Mary and Queen Anne periods.
- Satinwood late 18th-century fashionable wood
- A pale yellow, fine-grained timber from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the West Indies, fashionable from approximately 1770–1820. Associated with the Hepplewhite and Sheraton styles; used for veneer, banding, and painted decoration grounds. The characteristic satin-like sheen and subtle figure of satinwood make it instantly recognisable. Later Victorian reproductions often use inferior substitutes.
- Rosewood Regency and Victorian cabinet wood
- A dark, richly grained timber from Brazil and India, fashionable in the Regency and early Victorian periods (c.1810–1850). Used for solid furniture, veneer, and banding. The characteristic black streaking against a dark red-brown ground is distinctive. Associated with Regency sofa tables, chiffoniers, and cabinet furniture; also used in Victorian parlour furniture.
- Oak pre-1650 primary wood
- The dominant English furniture wood before the walnut period. Used solid for chairs, chests, court cupboards, and joined furniture of the Tudor and early Stuart periods. English oak has a distinctive medullary ray figure (silver grain) visible on quartersawn sections — a characteristic feature of 17th-century English furniture. Fumed or artificially aged oak (Arts & Crafts and reproduction) lacks the genuine surface oxidation of old oak.
- Elm Windsor chair and country wood
- A tough, interlocked-grain wood used in country furniture — particularly Windsor chair seats, where its resistance to splitting around the leg joints is valuable. Elm veneer (burr elm in particular) was fashionable for high-quality case furniture in the Regency period. Elm is susceptible to woodworm and splitting; good condition is particularly valued.
03
Periods & styles
- Queen Anne c. 1700 – 1730
- A style characterised by the cabriole leg (S-curved leg ending in a pad, club, or ball-and-claw foot), the fiddle-back (violin-shaped) splat in chairs, the bonnet top on case furniture, and the use of walnut veneer. English Queen Anne furniture is simpler and less ornate than the contemporary Dutch and Continental Baroque; American Queen Anne (slightly later, to c.1760) is the dominant collector category in the USA.
- Chippendale c. 1750 – 1790
- Named for Thomas Chippendale's Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker's Director (1754). Characterised by carved mahogany, the ribbon-back and ladder-back chair forms, the ball-and-claw foot, the fretwork galleries on case furniture, and the Rococo, Chinese, and Gothic Revival decorative vocabularies. "Chippendale" describes a style, not a single maker — authentic period pieces are valued regardless of their specific maker.
- Hepplewhite c. 1775 – 1800
- Named for George Hepplewhite's Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Guide (1788). Characterised by the shield-back chair, tapering square-section legs, the use of satinwood and painted decoration, the serpentine and bow front on case furniture, and delicate inlaid stringing and banding. A lighter, more refined style than Chippendale; associated with the Neoclassical movement.
- Sheraton c. 1790 – 1810
- Named for Thomas Sheraton's Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Drawing Book (1791–4). Even lighter than Hepplewhite: the square-back chair with vertical splats, very slender legs (often reeded), the cylinder desk form, the secretaire à abattant, and extensive use of contrasting wood banding and stringing. Associated with the height of the Neoclassical style in England.
- Regency c. 1800 – 1830
- The English equivalent of the French Empire style. Characterised by bold Greek and Egyptian motifs (klismos chairs, sabre legs, Egyptian caryatid mounts), the use of rosewood and brass inlay, ebonising and gilding, and the influence of Thomas Hope's Household Furniture (1807). Regency furniture is robust, architectural, and often uses metalwork mounts prominently.
- Arts & Crafts c. 1860 – 1910
- A reform movement rejecting machine production in favour of hand craftsmanship. In furniture: exposed construction joints, pegged mortise-and-tenon work, solid oak, minimal ornament (in reaction to Victorian excess), and the influence of medieval joinery traditions. Key makers: Morris & Co., Liberty & Co., Heal & Son (Britain); Gustav Stickley, Limbert, Roycroft (USA). Arts & Crafts furniture is collectible for its design integrity and craft quality.
04
Decorative techniques
- Marquetry pictorial veneer mosaic
- Decorative veneer work in which pieces of differently coloured or figured woods are cut and fitted together to create pictorial or floral designs. Applied to a ground veneer or directly to the carcass. Distinguished from parquetry by its pictorial quality. 17th-century Dutch and English marquetry (seaweed marquetry, floral marquetry) and 18th-century French marquetry (Riesener, Oeben) are the most highly valued.
- Parquetry geometric veneer pattern
- Veneer work using geometric shapes — squares, diamonds, lozenges — to create repeating patterns. Named for the parquet floor tradition. Used on tabletops, cabinet fronts, and box lids. The cube pattern (trompe-l'oeil three-dimensional boxes) is particularly associated with Biedermeier and early Victorian furniture.
- Inlay set-in decoration
- Decoration created by cutting recesses in the surface and filling them with contrasting materials — wood, bone, ivory, metal, or shell (mother-of-pearl). Distinguished from veneer (applied to the surface) by being set into the surface. Stringing lines (thin inlaid lines of contrasting wood or brass) and crossbanding (narrow strips of contrasting veneer applied across the grain direction) are the most common inlay forms.
- Ormolu gilt bronze mounts · French furniture
- Fire-gilded bronze or brass mounts applied to furniture surfaces for decoration and protection of corners and edges. Associated with French furniture of the Louis XV, Louis XVI, and Empire periods, and with English Regency furniture. Genuine ormolu is mercury-gilt and has a warm, matte-to-semi-matte finish; modern brass castings have a harder, more uniform appearance.
- Lacquer and Japanning Far Eastern-inspired finish
- Lacquer is a genuine Far Eastern finish using urushi (sap of the lacquer tree, Toxicodendron vernicifluum), built up in many coats to produce a glassy, durable surface. Japanning is the European imitation using varnishes. Both are associated with chinoiserie-decorated furniture of the late 17th and early 18th century. Genuine Japanese and Chinese lacquer furniture was imported and adapted for European taste; European japanned furniture imitated it in a less durable medium.
05
Hardware
- Brass bail handle drop bail · 18th century
- The most characteristic furniture hardware of the 18th century. A cast brass backplate with a bail (D-shaped drop) handle passes through the plate and is secured by wire posts through the drawer front. Backplate styles changed progressively — the solid oval and octagonal backplates of the Queen Anne period gave way to the pierced and engraved plates of the Chippendale era, then to the stamped oval plates of the Hepplewhite period. Hardware style is a useful dating indicator.
- Turned wooden knob American Federal / early Victorian
- A simple wooden knob replacing the brass bail handle, fashionable in American Federal furniture (c.1800–1840) and British early Victorian furniture. The material (mahogany, walnut, or ebonised), size, and profile of the knob are period indicators. The replacement of original brasses with later wooden knobs is common and reduces value.
- Escutcheon keyhole surround
- A decorative plate surrounding the keyhole on a drawer, door, or lid. Escutcheons may be applied (proud of the surface) or inlaid. Brass escutcheons are most common; bone and ivory escutcheons appear on high-quality pieces. The style and material of the escutcheon matches the hardware of its period.
- Castors furniture wheels
- Wheel fittings that allow heavy furniture to be moved without lifting. Early castors (pre-1750) use leather discs; cup-and-socket castors with a brass wheel arrived around 1750; the plate castor replaced the socket type by 1800. Castors leave distinctive wear marks on the feet — original castors show corresponding wear patterns. Replacement castors are common and their style can help date furniture (or confirm replacement).
06
General terms
- Patina aged surface quality
- The surface appearance developed by furniture over time through use, oxidation, waxing, and handling. Genuine antique patina has a depth and warmth that cannot be replicated artificially in a short time — the result of accumulated layers of wax, oil, and oxidation, worn smooth by use. The colour, sheen, and texture of patina differ from a recently stripped and re-polished surface. Patina is the most important single quality indicator in antique furniture.
- Marriage assembled from different pieces
- A piece of furniture assembled from parts of two or more different original pieces. A common example: a bookcase top from one source, a secretaire base from another. Marriages are typically worth less than original, unaltered pieces. Detection involves examining wood consistency, backboard treatment, proportions, and the fit of mouldings between sections.
- Period piece original example
- A piece of furniture made in the period to which its style refers — as opposed to a later reproduction or revival piece. "A period Chippendale chair" is a chair made in the 1750s–1790s; "a Victorian Chippendale revival chair" imitates the style but dates from the 19th century. Period pieces command significant premiums over revivals.
- Provenance ownership documentation
- The documented history of a furniture piece's ownership from original maker or patron to the present. Furniture with royal or notable aristocratic provenance — documented in portraits, inventories, or auction records — commands significant premiums. Country house auction provenance (from documented houses) is particularly valued.
- Secondary wood carcass / structural wood
- The less expensive wood used for drawer linings, backboards, and internal structure, hidden by the primary (decorative) veneer or solid wood exterior. The species of secondary wood is a strong national tradition indicator: English furniture typically uses oak or pine; American furniture uses poplar, pine, or tulipwood; French furniture uses oak. Inconsistency between expected secondary wood and actual secondary wood may indicate alteration or non-original components.